---
id: db-query-optimization
title: Query Optimization — Index / Rewrite / 분리
category: Coding
status: draft
source_trust_level: B
verification_status: conceptual
created_at: 2026-05-09
updated_at: 2026-05-09
tags: [database, query, optimization, vibe-coding]
tech_stack: { language: "SQL / Postgres", applicable_to: ["Backend"] }
applied_in: []
aliases: [query optimization, SARGable, covering index, CTE, materialized view, denormalization]
---

# Query Optimization

> Index 가 일반 답. 그러나 **query rewrite, denormalization, materialized view, partition** 도 무기. SARGable predicate, covering index, CTE.

## 📖 핵심 개념
- SARGable: index 사용 가능한 predicate.
- Covering index: query 가 필요한 모든 컬럼 포함.
- Denormalization: read 위해 일부 중복.
- Materialized view: 미리 계산.

## 💻 코드 패턴

### SARGable rewrite
```sql
-- ❌ Non-SARGable
WHERE EXTRACT(YEAR FROM created_at) = 2026
WHERE LOWER(email) = 'a@b.com'
WHERE id::text = '42'

-- ✅ SARGable
WHERE created_at >= '2026-01-01' AND created_at < '2027-01-01'
-- email = 'a@b.com'  (index 가 case-insensitive 면)
-- 또는 functional index
CREATE INDEX users_email_lower ON users ((LOWER(email)));
WHERE LOWER(email) = 'a@b.com'  -- 이제 SARGable
```

### Covering index
```sql
-- 자주 query
SELECT id, status FROM orders WHERE user_id = $1;

-- ✅ Covering index — heap 접근 X (Index Only Scan)
CREATE INDEX orders_user_covering ON orders (user_id) INCLUDE (id, status);
```

→ Postgres `INCLUDE` (11+).

### Composite index — leftmost
```sql
CREATE INDEX o_idx ON orders (user_id, status, created_at);

-- ✅ 사용
WHERE user_id = $1
WHERE user_id = $1 AND status = 'paid'
WHERE user_id = $1 AND status = 'paid' AND created_at > $2

-- ❌ Leading 안 맞음
WHERE status = 'paid'  -- 새 인덱스 필요
WHERE created_at > $2
```

### Selectivity (cardinality) 우선
```sql
-- email (high cardinality, 1M unique) > status (3 unique)
CREATE INDEX users (email, status);  -- email 먼저
```

→ 첫 컬럼이 가장 selective.

### Partial index (조건부)
```sql
-- 활성 user 만 자주 query
CREATE INDEX users_active ON users (email) WHERE deleted_at IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = $1 AND deleted_at IS NULL;
-- → 작은 인덱스, 빠름
```

### Expression index
```sql
CREATE INDEX events_lower_event ON events (LOWER(event_type));
```

### Materialized view (자주 query, 가끔 새로고침)
```sql
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW user_stats AS
SELECT user_id, count(*) AS orders, sum(total) AS spent
FROM orders GROUP BY user_id;

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX user_stats_pk ON user_stats (user_id);

-- 새로고침
REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW CONCURRENTLY user_stats;
```

→ 분 / 시간 마다 cron.

### Denormalization
```sql
-- ❌ 매 read 가 join
SELECT o.*, u.email FROM orders o JOIN users u ON o.user_id = u.id;

-- ✅ orders 안에 email 복사 (immutable 또는 수용)
ALTER TABLE orders ADD COLUMN user_email TEXT;
-- INSERT 시 같이 채움
```

→ Write 비용 ↑ but read 큰 절약.

### CTE (WITH)
```sql
WITH recent_orders AS (
  SELECT * FROM orders WHERE created_at > NOW() - INTERVAL '7 days'
)
SELECT user_id, count(*) FROM recent_orders GROUP BY user_id;
```

⚠️ Postgres 12+ = inline. 옛 PG = optimization barrier.

### LATERAL join (각 row 마다 다른 query)
```sql
SELECT u.*, last_order.total
FROM users u
LEFT JOIN LATERAL (
  SELECT * FROM orders o
  WHERE o.user_id = u.id ORDER BY created_at DESC LIMIT 1
) last_order ON true;
```

→ 각 user 의 마지막 order. Subquery 보다 효율.

### EXISTS vs IN
```sql
-- ✅ EXISTS — short-circuit
SELECT * FROM users WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM orders o WHERE o.user_id = users.id);

-- ⚠️ IN — 큰 list 면 hash
SELECT * FROM users WHERE id IN (SELECT user_id FROM orders);
```

→ 보통 같은 plan, but EXISTS 안 NULL 안전.

### Pagination — keyset > offset
```sql
-- ❌ 큰 offset
SELECT * FROM orders ORDER BY id DESC OFFSET 100000 LIMIT 20;

-- ✅ Keyset
SELECT * FROM orders WHERE id < $cursor ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 20;
```

### Batch (다중 row 한 query)
```sql
-- ❌ N+1
for (id of ids) await db.query('SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = $1', [id]);

-- ✅ Batch
SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = ANY($1::uuid[]);
```

```ts
const users = await db.query('SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = ANY($1)', [ids]);
```

### EXPLAIN reads
```sql
EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT ...;
-- "actual time" 가 일관 빠름인지
-- "Buffers: shared read=" 가 큰지 (디스크 I/O)
-- "Rows Removed by Filter" 가 큰지 (인덱스 필요)
```

### 통계 + ANALYZE
```sql
ANALYZE orders;  -- statistics 업데이트
-- autovacuum 가 보통 자동 — 큰 변경 후 명시적 도움
```

### Statistics extended
```sql
-- 두 컬럼이 correlated
CREATE STATISTICS s_user_status ON user_id, status FROM orders;
ANALYZE orders;
```

→ 더 정확한 row estimate.

### Index hint (Postgres pg_hint_plan extension)
```sql
/*+ IndexScan(orders orders_user_idx) */
SELECT * FROM orders WHERE user_id = $1;
```

→ 마지막 수단. 보통 ANALYZE / 더 좋은 index.

### N+1 in app
```ts
// ❌
for (const user of users) {
  user.orders = await db.orders.findByUser(user.id);
}

// ✅ DataLoader / Prisma include / SQL JOIN
const orders = await db.orders.findMany({ where: { userId: { in: userIds } } });
const byUser = groupBy(orders, 'userId');
users.forEach(u => u.orders = byUser[u.id] ?? []);
```

## 🤔 의사결정 기준
| 패턴 | 사용 |
|---|---|
| 자주 read 같은 query | Index |
| read 많고 write 적음 | Materialized view |
| Read >> write 큰 차이 | Denormalize / CDC |
| 부분 자주 | Partial index |
| 큰 group by | Aggregating MV |
| Top N per group | Window function / LATERAL |

## ❌ 안티패턴
- **Non-SARGable predicate**: index 사용 못 함.
- **`SELECT *` + 큰 row**: I/O 큼.
- **N+1 query**: app loop. JOIN / batch.
- **모든 column index**: write 비용 ↑.
- **Materialized view 안 refresh**: stale.
- **CTE 가정 + 옛 PG (< 12)**: optimization barrier.
- **OFFSET 큰 page**: 모든 row 읽음.

## 🤖 LLM 활용 힌트
- EXPLAIN ANALYZE 후 액션.
- Index — composite + covering + partial.
- Read 비싼 query = MV / denormalization.

## 🔗 관련 문서
- [[DB_Postgres_EXPLAIN]]
- [[DB_Index_Strategy]]
- [[DB_N_Plus_One]]