---
id: wiki-2026-0508-distributed-systems
title: Distributed Systems
category: 10_Wiki/Topics
status: verified
canonical_id: self
aliases: [distributed systems, microservices, consensus, raft, paxos, sharding, replication]
duplicate_of: none
source_trust_level: A
confidence_score: 0.95
verification_status: applied
tags: [distributed-systems, scalability, microservices, consensus, replication, sharding, fault-tolerance]
raw_sources: []
last_reinforced: 2026-05-10
github_commit: pending
tech_stack:
  language: distributed systems
  framework: K8s / Kafka / Cassandra / Redis / etcd
---

# Distributed Systems

## 매 한 줄
> **"매 N machine 의 1 system 의 appearance"**. 매 fault tolerance + 매 scale + 매 latency 의 trade-off. 매 CAP / PACELC 의 fundamental. 매 modern: 매 K8s + 매 service mesh + 매 eventual consistency 의 default. 매 edge / multi-region 의 trend.

## 매 핵심 challenges

### 8 fallacies of distributed computing (Deutsch / Gosling)
1. 매 network 의 reliable.
2. 매 latency 의 zero.
3. 매 bandwidth 의 infinite.
4. 매 network 의 secure.
5. 매 topology 의 unchanged.
6. 매 1 admin.
7. 매 transport cost 의 zero.
8. 매 network 의 homogeneous.

→ 매 모두 의 false.

### CAP / PACELC
- 매 [[CAP-Theorem]] 참조.

### 매 핵심 problem
- **Consistency**: 매 다른 node 의 같은 view?
- **Coordination**: 매 leader / consensus.
- **Failure**: 매 partial failure.
- **Time**: 매 clock skew (Lamport, vector clock).
- **Network**: 매 partition.

## 매 핵심 patterns

### Replication
- 매 same data 의 multiple node.
- 매 sync vs async.
- 매 leader-follower vs multi-leader.

### Sharding / Partitioning
- 매 data 의 N piece 의 split.
- 매 hash / range / geographic.

### Consensus
- **Raft** (modern, simpler): 매 etcd, Consul, CockroachDB.
- **Paxos**: 매 classic.
- **Multi-Paxos / EPaxos**.
- **PBFT** (Byzantine).

### Eventual consistency
- 매 some time 매 converge.
- 매 CRDT 의 conflict-free.

### 매 service patterns
- **API gateway**.
- **Service mesh** (Istio, Linkerd).
- **Sidecar**.
- **Circuit breaker**.
- **Bulkhead**.
- **Saga** (distributed transaction).
- **Outbox** (reliable messaging).

### 매 messaging
- **Kafka**: 매 high-throughput log.
- **RabbitMQ**: 매 traditional queue.
- **NATS**: 매 simple, fast.
- **Pulsar**: 매 modern Kafka alternative.
- **Redis Streams**.

### 매 observability
- 매 distributed tracing (OpenTelemetry).
- 매 structured logs.
- 매 metrics.
- 매 chaos engineering.

### 매 응용
1. **Web app at scale**.
2. **Cloud database** (Spanner, CockroachDB).
3. **ML training** (data + model parallel).
4. **Blockchain** (BFT + permissionless).
5. **Edge computing**.
6. **CDN**.

## 💻 패턴

### Raft (etcd / consul)
```python
# 매 simplified
class RaftNode:
    def __init__(self):
        self.state = 'follower'
        self.term = 0
        self.voted_for = None
        self.log = []
        self.commit_index = 0
    
    def request_vote(self, term, candidate_id, last_log_index, last_log_term):
        if term > self.term:
            self.term = term
            self.state = 'follower'
        if self.voted_for in (None, candidate_id) and self.is_log_up_to_date(last_log_index, last_log_term):
            self.voted_for = candidate_id
            return True
        return False
    
    def append_entries(self, term, leader_id, entries):
        if term < self.term: return False
        self.log.extend(entries)
        return True
```

### Sharding (consistent hashing)
```python
import hashlib
from sortedcontainers import SortedList

class ConsistentHash:
    def __init__(self, nodes, virtual_nodes=150):
        self.ring = SortedList()
        self.node_map = {}
        for node in nodes:
            for i in range(virtual_nodes):
                key = self._hash(f'{node}#{i}')
                self.ring.add(key)
                self.node_map[key] = node
    
    def _hash(self, s):
        return int(hashlib.md5(s.encode()).hexdigest(), 16)
    
    def get_node(self, key):
        if not self.ring: return None
        h = self._hash(key)
        idx = self.ring.bisect_right(h)
        if idx == len(self.ring): idx = 0
        return self.node_map[self.ring[idx]]
```

### Saga pattern (distributed transaction)
```python
class OrderSaga:
    """매 매 step + 매 compensating action."""
    
    async def execute(self, order):
        completed = []
        try:
            await self.reserve_inventory(order); completed.append('inventory')
            await self.charge_payment(order); completed.append('payment')
            await self.create_shipment(order); completed.append('shipment')
            return 'success'
        except Exception as e:
            # 매 compensate in reverse
            for step in reversed(completed):
                await getattr(self, f'undo_{step}')(order)
            return f'failed: {e}'
```

### Outbox pattern (reliable messaging)
```sql
-- 매 매 transaction 의 outbox row 도 insert
BEGIN;
INSERT INTO orders (...) VALUES (...);
INSERT INTO outbox (event_type, payload, status) 
VALUES ('OrderCreated', '{...}', 'pending');
COMMIT;

-- 매 separate worker
SELECT * FROM outbox WHERE status = 'pending' LIMIT 100 FOR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED;
-- publish to Kafka
UPDATE outbox SET status = 'published' WHERE id = $1;
```

### Circuit breaker
```ts
class CircuitBreaker {
  state: 'closed' | 'open' | 'half-open' = 'closed';
  failures = 0;
  lastFailure = 0;
  
  async call<T>(fn: () => Promise<T>): Promise<T> {
    if (this.state === 'open') {
      if (Date.now() - this.lastFailure > 30_000) this.state = 'half-open';
      else throw new ServiceUnavailable();
    }
    try {
      const r = await fn();
      this.state = 'closed';
      this.failures = 0;
      return r;
    } catch (e) {
      this.failures++;
      this.lastFailure = Date.now();
      if (this.failures >= 5) this.state = 'open';
      throw e;
    }
  }
}
```

### Vector clock (causal ordering)
```python
class VectorClock:
    def __init__(self, node_id, n_nodes):
        self.node_id = node_id
        self.clock = [0] * n_nodes
    
    def tick(self):
        self.clock[self.node_id] += 1
    
    def update(self, other_clock):
        self.clock = [max(a, b) for a, b in zip(self.clock, other_clock)]
        self.tick()
    
    def happens_before(self, other):
        return all(a <= b for a, b in zip(self.clock, other.clock)) and \
               any(a < b for a, b in zip(self.clock, other.clock))
```

### CRDT (G-Counter)
```python
class GCounter:
    def __init__(self, node_id):
        self.node_id = node_id
        self.counts = {}
    
    def increment(self):
        self.counts[self.node_id] = self.counts.get(self.node_id, 0) + 1
    
    def value(self):
        return sum(self.counts.values())
    
    def merge(self, other):
        for nid, cnt in other.counts.items():
            self.counts[nid] = max(self.counts.get(nid, 0), cnt)
```

### Service mesh (Istio sidecar)
```yaml
# 매 매 Pod 의 Envoy sidecar
apiVersion: networking.istio.io/v1beta1
kind: VirtualService
metadata: { name: orders }
spec:
  hosts: [orders]
  http:
  - route:
    - destination: { host: orders, subset: v1, weight: 90 }
    - destination: { host: orders, subset: v2, weight: 10 }
    fault:
      delay: { percentage: { value: 0.1 }, fixedDelay: 5s }  # 매 chaos
```

### Distributed tracing
```python
from opentelemetry import trace

tracer = trace.get_tracer(__name__)

@tracer.start_as_current_span('process_order')
def process(order):
    with tracer.start_as_current_span('validate'):
        validate(order)
    with tracer.start_as_current_span('charge'):
        charge(order)
    with tracer.start_as_current_span('ship'):
        ship(order)
```

### Chaos engineering
```python
# 매 Chaos Monkey 식
import random

class ChaosMonkey:
    def maybe_kill(self, instance, p=0.001):
        if random.random() < p:
            log(f'CHAOS: killing {instance.id}')
            instance.terminate()
```

## 매 결정 기준
| 상황 | Pattern |
|---|---|
| Strong consistency | Raft / Paxos (etcd, CockroachDB) |
| High availability | Eventual + CRDT (Cassandra, DynamoDB) |
| Distributed transaction | Saga + Outbox |
| Service-to-service | Service mesh |
| High-throughput msg | Kafka |
| Real-time low-latency | NATS / Redis |
| Multi-region read | CDN / Edge cache |
| Cross-region write | Spanner / FoundationDB |

**기본값**: 매 K8s + service mesh + Raft for state + Kafka for events + tracing.

## 🔗 Graph
- 부모: [[Software-Architecture]] · [[System-Design]]
- 변형: [[CAP-Theorem]] · [[PACELC]] · [[Microservices]] · [[Service-Mesh]] · [[CRDT]]
- 응용: [[Raft]] · [[Paxos]] · [[Saga]] · [[Outbox]] · [[Circuit-Breaker]]
- Tools: [[Kafka]] · [[Cassandra]] · [[etcd]] · [[Spanner]] · [[Kubernetes]]
- Adjacent: [[Availability-and-Persistence]] · [[Architecture-Styles]] · [[Bottlenecks]] · [[Antifragility]]

## 🤖 LLM 활용
**언제**: 매 system design. 매 scalability planning. 매 reliability engineering. 매 multi-region.
**언제 X**: 매 single-machine app. 매 prototype.

## ❌ 안티패턴
- **8 fallacies 의 ignore**.
- **Distributed monolith** (sync chain).
- **Synchronous everything** (no event-driven).
- **No idempotency** (retry corruption).
- **No observability**.
- **Premature microservices**.
- **No circuit breaker** (cascade fail).

## 🧪 검증 / 중복
- Verified (Kleppmann "DDIA", Raft paper, Paxos paper, Google papers).
- 신뢰도 A.
- Related: [[CAP-Theorem]] · [[Availability-and-Persistence]] · [[Architecture-Styles]] · [[Bottlenecks]] · [[Bounded-Contexts]] · [[Antifragility]].

## 🕓 Changelog
| 날짜 | 변경 |
|---|---|
| 2026-05-08 | Phase 1 |
| 2026-05-10 | Manual cleanup — 8 fallacies + patterns + 매 Raft / sharding / Saga / Outbox / circuit breaker / CRDT code |
